FREE ESSAY ON WHAT IS TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT?

WHAT IS TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT?

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This report aims to familiarize and to provide an understanding of Technology Assessment
both in its past and present form. Its different viewpoints, approaches, tools and
methods, which are all relevant to the engineering decision-maker and analyst alike, are
discussed.
The four different Technology Assessment paradigms as described by Eijnhoven (1997) along
with the views of lecturers in this subject on the question What is Technology
Assessment? , is also discussed and analysed.
By understanding the roots of technological assessment and its impacts on everyday life,
one can recognize and appreciate the importance of its presence in an ever-changing
environment. The first part of this report aims to achieve this.
The second part of this report describes the increased need for engineers to incorporate
Technology Assessment into engineering decision making and its practice. Different
engineering disciplines will see Technology Assessment in different perspectives. How
they will approach a particular problem through the different environmental, social,
technical, economic and political factors is part of the decision making process (Taylor,
2000).
THE NEED FOR TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT
Brief History
In the post-war era, the necessity of taking into account social costs and benefits as
well as private costs and benefits became apparent. At the time, problems relating to
forecasting the future consequences of complex technologies became more and more obvious
(Freeman 1995). Such an example if the issue of nuclear power. The limitations of a
purely economics-based assessment of social and environmental problems had become clear.
It was in these circumstances that techniques of 'Technology Assessment' began to be used
in an attempt to overcome the short-comings and limitations of cost-benefit analysis.
Thus, Technology Assessment was adopted by U.S Congress and governments from around the
world and was widely recognised through the need to make publicly available assessment of
the potential risks, hazards, costs and benefits of developing new technologies. It also
sparked the importance of parliamentary control of assessment procedures and the
involvement of diverse disciplines.
Reflections
An example of developing new technologies would be the resource presentation by Wahidul
Biswas on Socio-Technical Design in Mechanical Engineering. In his presentation, Wahidul
talks about the consequences of new technologies, that is, social and environmental
aspects. New technologies (NT's) centers less on the numbers employed (a social aspect)
and leads to incomplete combustion and biomass consumption in developing countries (an
environmental aspect).
Technology Assessment as described in Eijnhoven readings by the lecture from Bronwyn
Holland as a metaphor that 'Technology Assessment illuminates the darkness/opacity of the
technology society interface' (Eijnhoven 1997). This is quite true. In a society where
nothing is very open, Technology Assessment is necessary to bring technology and society
to 'light', so to speak, in order to gain a better understanding.
One important purpose of technology assessment, in general, will be continual
improvement. By using evaluation results, one will better understand how a technological
product or process is working and where it is headed. With this greater understanding,
better decisions can be made that will improve/refine the life of the product or process
in the long run.
Examples would include:
? radiation 
? nuclear energy 
? fuel emissions 
Negative effects of the above, in general, are becoming positive effects through the
continual implementation of technology assessment.
Another good example would be in the area of Health Technologies. The resource
presentation by Hung Nguyen on Design issues in Electrical Engineering talks about the
need to design a non-invasive hypoglycaemia monitor capable of monitoring hypoglycaemia
conditions, without extracting blood or body fluid. Technology assessment is necessary in
designing such a device for diabetic patients. Using new and improving technology, more
advanced monitoring systems can be designed and implemented to better fulfil society.
Engineers are currently working on such a device. As stated in his lecture, there is no
hypoglycaemia monitor in the market at present.
There are many different reasons to evaluate a particular technology. Many people think
of an assessment as a nerve-wracking process meant to determine continued funding or
recognition. Although making decisions on continued funding or recognition could be a
purpose of technology assessment, there are many other reasons why one should assess
technology.
Some of these reasons are: 
? To provide information to engineers and others on aspects of the technology that work
well and the potential problems that arises.
? To catch potential problems early in the technology product so they can be corrected
before more serious problems occur further down the track. 
? To guide further assessment efforts. For instance, an assessment may bring to light;
issues that need to be examined in greater detail or an initial evaluation of a
technology product implementation may be used, in part, to guide a later assessment of
long-term impact. 
? To provide information on what technical assistance may be needed. 
? To determine what impact the technology product is having on users in our society.
So, to answer the question Why do we need technology assessment? in my view, has two
major parts:
1. To find out if the technological product is beginning to produce desired results that
one aims for. For example:
? Has the product improved over existing model/product?
? Is it comparatively cost effective?
? Does it have a place in society? If so, how useful is it?
? Are all major factors considered? That is, environmental, social, technical,
economical, cultural and political factors?
2. To obtain information on implementing the product.
UNDERSTANDING TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT
What is Technology Assessment?
There is no one straight answer or definition to this question. Technology assessment has
taken on many forms and approaches and is viewed differently by each individual. It is
however, can be agreed that technology assessment has established itself as a new form of
interdisciplinary technology research where engineers from all disciplines and other
parties come together to assess a particular technology. 
Two definitions, which I believe, are good approaches to understanding Technology
Assessment are:
? Technology assessment is a class of policy studies which systematically examine the
effects on society that may occur when a technology is introduced, extended or modified.
It emphasizes those consequences that are unintended, indirect or delayed (Coates 1980)
? Technology assessment is an attempt to establish an early warning system to detect,
control, and direct technological changes and developments so as to maximise the public
good while minimising the public risks (Cetron 1972)
There are four main types of TA approaches, which can be distinguished (Ende et al
1997):
1. Awareness TA: forecasting technological developments and their impacts to warn for
unintended or undesirable consequences.
2. Strategic TA: supporting specific actors or groups of actors in formulating their
policy or strategy with respect to a specific technological development.
3. Constructive TA: broadening the decision process about technological development, to
shape the course of technological development in socially desirable directions.
4. Backcasting: developing scenarios of desirable futures and starting innovation
processes based on these scenarios.
Technology assessment analyses are studies which:
? comprehensively and systematically analyse and evaluate the prerequisites for and the
positive and negative impact of introducing and (widely) applying technologies;
? identify areas of social conflict created by technology applications and
? Point out and review optimal courses of action (options) for improving the technologies
considered and their terms of application. 
The Starting points for technology assessment are either from a concrete project, a
specific technology or a perceived problem. There are three Technology Assessment studies
usually undertaken:
1. Project-induced TA-studies: Investigation of technology applications that are
prototypical.
2. Technology-induced TA-studies: Address the issue of using a technology and its
consequences for industry, the environment and society within the framework of a broad
range of known or potential applications.
3. Problem-induced TA-studies: These studies attempt to point out possible alternative
(technical) solutions for foreseeable problems, such as in the areas of transport, energy
supply, environmental issues etc.) and to analyse their impacts.
The four paradigms as defined by Eijnhoven
J.C.M Van Eijnhoven, a professor of technology assessment had devised through extensive
research, the four paradigms of technology assessment: the classical paradigm; the Office
of Technology Assessment (OTA) paradigm; public technology assessment paradigm; and
constructive technology (CTA) paradigm.
Classical Paradigm
The classical paradigm emphasized early warning and the neutral character of the
information to be provided.
OTA Paradigm
OTA assessments were not so directed at early warning, but at the development of policy
makers. The careful balancing of participation of the U.S Congress, stakeholders and
academics provided a mechanism leading to authoritative reports.
Public TA Paradigm
Concentrates on actively seeking participation of a wider public. The emphasis here is
much less on the production of authoritative reports than on social processes that may
help shape technology in society. In countries other than the United States, much more
emphasis is placed upon a lack of interaction among experts, representatives and the
public with respect to science and technology issues (Eijnhoven 1997). Public TA paradigm
aims to bridge the gap between the public and private sectors while at the same time,
expanding the relationship between people and technology.
Active involvement of the public in making them understand the scope and implications of
a particular technology is what governments, the parliament and private sectors hope to
achieve.
An example of this would be to hold conferences where a panel of people is educated about
a certain technological development and whereby they can consult with experts and the
audience about particular issues and concerns.
Their conclusions are then written into a document, which is then delivered to parliament
as a basis for further policy development (Eijnhoven 1997).
CTA Paradigm
The Dutch Science Dynamics program was the start of a development that ultimately led to
constructive technology assessment. The Science Dynamics program was created by the
Minister of Science Policy (minister 1973-1981) of the Netherlands to initiate a research
program directed at finding ways in which research can be oriented toward societal
goals.
Compared to the early warning approach of the classical paradigm, constructive technology
assessment was idealised as an active, positive form of shaping technological
development. 
The body of literature about constructive technology assessment leads one to think how
technological development can most effectively be influenced. This is done primarily in
industry. For this reason, constructive technology assessment can sometimes be viewed as
a form of enlightened management, of broadening the factors taken into account in the
usual design processes in industry.
Technology Assessment Tools and Methods
There are numerous technology assessment tools and methods used by the relevant
party(ies), professions and governments of today, both modern and traditional. New
assessment tools and methods are being discovered or developed at a rapid pace to adapt
to the needs of an ever-changing environment. 
The application of different TA tools and methods needs to be evaluated more
systematically to determine in which situations the application of the tools and methods
has been successful and in which not. 
Moreover, a combination of different TA tools and methods may be required for, say, a
particular project/product.
Examples of the tools and methods used to identify or characterise Technology Assessment
can be summarised in the table 1:
Tools and Methods 
Layout of Studies Layout of interventions Tools for Analysis Intervention Tools
Technological Forecasting Intervention in Innovation Networks Trend Extrapolation
Consumer Conference
Impact Assessment Connecting Separated Networks Structured Interaction Structured
Interaction
(Delphi)
Scenario Analysis Demand Articulation Checklists 
Market Research Consumer TA Socio-technical Maps 
Panel Consensus Participatory TA 
Visionary Forecasts Citizens' Initiatives 
Risk Assessment Strategic Niche Management 
Table 1: Tools and Methods
Four tools and methods, which will be discussed in this report, are Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA), Barometer of Sustainability, Structured Interaction (Delphi) and
Technological Forecasting.
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) 
Environmental impact assessment aims to record and evaluate the impact of physical
projects (e.g. building roads, power stations, industrial plants etc). An environmental
impact assessment is not just a study of the environmental impact of a project but is a
legally regulated process, which must be carried out in accordance with certain rules and
regulations before approval is granted. 
Environmental impact assessments must also be carried out for environmentally relevant
plans and programs (town planning, land-use programs, transport planning, research and
technology programs etc.). 
From the methodological aspect, EIA has a great deal in common with TA; in many
countries, economic and social effects are also considered within the framework of
environmental impact assessments, i.e. the impacts they record are similarly
comprehensive to those of TA-studies. 
An overlap between technology assessment and environmental impact assessment is
particularly evident in the case of research and technology programs, or projects
concerned with building technological innovation (e.g. coal liquefaction plants). Such
environmental impact assessments are usually accepted into the TA-field, while
environmental impact assessments of projects with an already established technology (e.g.
construction of a coal power station) or other conventional projects are not included
(Halstead 2000).
Barometer of Sustainability
A powerful tool for examining and understanding human and ecological well being at the
same time. Developed by the World Conservation Union and supported by a grant from the
International Development Research Centre (IDRC) for a project titled Measuring Progress
towards Sustainability. 
It enables users to organise and combine indicators, and to draw broad conclusions from
often confusing and contradictory signals about people, the ecosystem, and the effects of
interactions between the two. It presents those conclusions visually, providing an
immediate picture of well-being. 
The Barometer has six key features: 
1) A performance scale, combining indicators to which the user can attach a performance
value -- desirable, acceptable, or unacceptable, for example -- with respect to human or
ecosystem well-being
2) The scale has two axes: one for human well-being, the other for ecosystem well-being.
This ensures that an improvement in one does not mask a decline in the other. Conclusions
about well-being are expressed as points on their appropriate axes. The intersection of
these points provides a reading of overall well-being and progress toward sustainability
3) A lower score on one axis overrides a higher score on the other. In other words,
overall well-being is based on which subsystem -- people or the ecosystem -- is in worse
condition
4) The Barometer's 0-100 scale is divided into five sectors of 20 points each, the
interval between which may vary. Users control the scale by defining one or more sectors.
For example, for unemployment amongst engineers, 0-4% may be defined as good, 5-9% as
okay, 10-19% as medium, 20-49% as poor, and 50-100% as bad
5) Defining the sectors of the scale obliges users to state explicitly their assumptions
about the significance of each indicator for human or ecosystem well-being, and the level
of achievement that would be ideal, desirable, acceptable, unacceptable, or disastrous
6) Converting indicator results to the barometer scale involves simple calculations,
making it easy to use for a wide range of people and applications
Structured Interaction (Delphi)
A technology assessment approach developed for forecasting purposes. This process
requires that experts consider the issues under investigation and make predictions about
future developments. Delphi is a systematic, interactive method of forecasting based on
independent inputs regarding future events. 
The method includes interviewing of, and anonymously exchanging answers between experts.
In this way, an attempt is made to make an estimate of future developments without any
interference of the social relations that exist between these experts (Ende et al 1997).
However, there is a limitation, in interviewing experts, will generally produce biased
results. A flowchart of the Delphi process is shown below.
This anonymity also provides the comfort of confidentiality, allowing experts on the
panel to freely express their opinions. By doing so, it becomes highly useful in
documenting a wide spread of opinion so that uncertainty regarding events or the topic at
hand can be reflected. Thus, different perspectives from a range of disciplines are
critical to the outcome. 
All participants are encouraged to comment on their own forecasts and on the combined
panel results. This procedure reduces the effects of personal agendas or biases and
assists the panelists in remaining focused on the questions, issues and comments at hand.

Technological Forecasting
Technology forecasting is a quite common technology assessment technique used in almost
any application. However, it is primarily used to develop images of the future
development of technology. In particular, the predictions of future technologies and how
it will vary as its technological course of action varies is seen as probable futures.
The realisation of these futures is dependent on actions of the different parties
involved.
There are immense limitations with the application of this technique, in particular where
technological forecasts are seen as being highly predictive. One of the fundamental flaws
is that of predicting technology itself. How does one predict that a particular
technology will, if ever, be actually successful, as one would hope it to be? The answer
to this question is of a speculative nature.
Another limitation would be the difficulty in forecasting societal developments.
Especially in an uncertain era such as this one, society develops and changes constantly.
Adapting to change would be quite difficult and forecasting would probably be needed to
be done on a regular basis.
Also, the unpredictable types of use of new technologies are another limitation. One
cannot be sure whether a certain technology forecasted will solely be used for that
purpose(s) only. 
DISCIPLINARY DIFFERENCES IN TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT
Overview
In today's society, Technology Assessment plays a significant role in the engineering
decision making process. It is seen more and more as a formality to include Technology
Assessment studies when dealing with engineering decisions. Increased pressure from the
social, environmental, cultural, political, economical and technical factors have shaped
the way engineers think. 
The idea of interdisciplinary research is not an uncommon one. Until different
disciplines are brought into contact with one another, the results obtained within a
single discipline are likely to be highly misleading. Interdisciplinary research is
evident in almost all projects undertaken by engineers and other professions. 
Technology Assessment and Engineering Disciplines
The primary function of engineers is to use their technical knowledge and training to
create products and processes that are of value to the organisation (Harris et al 1995).
Engineers being professionals must uphold the standards their profession has decided
should guide the use of their technical knowledge. They have obligations to hold which
include meeting the standards usually associated with good design and accepted
engineering practice. The criteria embedded in these standards include such
considerations as efficiency and economy of design, the degree of invulnerability to
improper manufacturing and operation, and the extent to which state-of-the-art technology
is used. Technology Assessment is one major tool engineers use in their approach to
achieve this.
Technology Assessment (TA), I believe should be incorporated right across the engineering
range of disciplines. It should be implemented at the beginning and finish of a project
or product, to ensure the above-mentioned relevant factors are taken into consideration,
and that the engineers' decision, in the end, is the right one. Different TA tools and
methods will be implemented by different engineering disciplines.
TA studies should also be done to ensure the project viability and the risks as an
outcome from products, structures, substances created by engineers is minimised or
avoided.
Engineering necessarily involves risks. Even if engineers did not innovate but rather
designed things in the same way year after year, the chance of producing harm would
exist. New hazards could be found in products, processes and chemicals once thought to be
safe (Harris et al 1995).
The element of risk is greatly increased because engineers are constantly involved in
innovation. 
Examples:
? Civil engineers and Builders constructing a bridge or building with new materials or
with a new design 
? Mechanical engineers designing new machines
? Chemical engineers synthesizing new chemical compounds
This is usually always done without the full knowledge of their long-term effects on
humans or the environment. Thus, TA becomes crucial in reducing these effects. By
implementing TA-studies, knowledge of the dangers associated with new technology can be
avoided or minimised.
Incorporating factors into the engineering decision making process
As mentioned in the overview, engineering disciplines have different social, technical,
economic and political forces that shape their decision making process. This is quite
true. Different engineering disciplines will have different views on a particular subject
or project. Each engineer would have been taught to think differently and act/respond
accordingly and so the engineering phrase there is more than one way to design something
is quite true.
Examples
Typical examples of the different disciplines that incorporate the various factors into
their decision making process is in the medical technologies and IT industry.
While most assessments of medical technologies focus narrowly on their cost
effectiveness, a more important question for technology assessment involves the decision
making process that accompanies it. In addition one knows little information about the
different roles played by different actors in the development and implementation of
medical technology such as hospitals, as well as financial institutions (example, health
care insurers). (Weijers 1995).
Decision making on such medical technologies such as insulin fusion pumps used for the
treatment of diabetics was quite interesting as it was a new technology whose optimal use
pattern was (and remains) unknown. Here, different factors such as social, economical,
technical, health factors and approaches are incorporated into the decision making
process.
Decision-making is often limited to the efficiency of the technology as such amongst
other factors, and is based on the technology's state of the art at that moment. Rarely
do decision-makers take into account the possibility that a technology might change,
through research and development, or that new organisations or involved parties might
change its application. 
Another example of decision making processes incorporating the various factors is in the
Information Technology industry. Social, economical, technical and political factors are
the important ones to consider when assessing, producing and implementing new
technologies.
Whereas IT has been a steadily growing element of society for the last 50 years, one is
now faced with a situation where IT in many respects is setting the standard for
communication between organisations. Traditional means are no longer a cost-effective
alternative and will therefore be replaced. With individuals, IT is starting to become a
part of everyday life. Examples include:
? Electronic transfer of money instead of cash payments
? Mobile phones 
? Video conferencing
? The Internet
All these are popular examples, which indicate changes in everyday life.
Another example is in communication with authorities, where personal data is sometimes
only available on computer.
A growing concern whilst dealing with IT is IT-security. The three main areas are:
? Continuity - the availability of information to the organisation or individual
? Integrity - level of trust one can put on the information processed, transmitted or
stored.
? Privacy - who is allowed to see what information
Each engineering discipline will incorporate different factors in regards to their
decision making process. For example, a Civil Engineer on a specific project, say,
building a road, would need to consider all, if not most of the factors listed
previously. Whilst an Environmental Engineer would probably concentrate on the
environmental, cultural, and social factors associated with building a road. But both
would collaborate with one another to achieve an optimal goal or end product. This leads
to the issue of interdisciplinary research.
Interdisciplinary Research
As mentioned earlier, Technology Assessment has established itself as a new form of
interdisciplinary technology research where engineers from all disciplines and other
parties' come together to assess a particular technology. Technology and society is quite
clearly approached from different directions by different disciplines not just engineers.
These include economists, technologists, scientists' etc.
Different engineering disciplines with their different assumptions and methods are
brought into contact with one another as evident with any project undertaken or
development of new technology. Decisions are made, during the research stage of new
technologies and of new equipment, which will later force all efforts to design the jobs
in connection with them. This research phase should therefore attract other disciplines
other than engineering such as social scientists. Indeed, there are similarities and
differences existent in the way socio-technical information is sought in the various
disciplines.
The basic model drawn on the previous page is typical of the engineering decision making
process that engineers use to plan, implement and design a particular project. This model
can also be used in other disciplines.
Conclusion
From this report one can conclude by saying that Technology Assessment is vital in all
aspects of society and not just in engineering alone. Through the different approaches,
viewpoints, tools and methods of technology assessment we can gain a better understanding
of the processes involved and to produce, refine and implement new and existing
technologies to better fulfil our daily lives.
Through the understanding of paradigms classical, OTA, public and Constructive (as
described by Eijnhoven), we can try and relate it to real-life situations and engineering
applications.
The need for Technology Assessment to be incorporated at the design phase of a project is
crucial and fundamental in the way Engineering design is undertaken by the various
Engineering disciplines.
The issue of Interdisciplinary research and collaboration is achieved through the use of
Technology Assessment tools and techniques.
Also, the different social, technical, economic and political factors are all factors
which influence the way decision making processes are made through different engineering
disciplines.
Technology Assessment has taken on many forms during this era and is varied through each
individual and/or organisation. It has an enormous impact on my future as a practising
engineer. 
REFERENCES
Taylor, Elizabeth. 2000 48270 Technology Assessment Study Guide Notes s2000 1, 
Freeman, Christopher, 1995. Preface to Managing Technology in Society.
Managing Technology and Society, 1995, p. ix. Pinter Publishers
Eijnhoven, Josee Van 1997 Technology Assessment : Product or Process?
Technological Forecasting and Social Change, vol 54
Biswas, Wahidul 2000 Socio-Technical Design in Mechanical Engineering
Resource Presentation 2000
Holland, Bro