FREE ESSAY ON SCAFFOLDING IN EDUCATION

SCAFFOLDING IN EDUCATION

Abstract
The World Wide Web is being seen more and more as an effective and above all inexpensive
means of delivering courses in the tertiary education sector. It is important however
that financial imperatives to not take precedence over educational goals. In the search
for an effective approach to Web learning, an re-examination of learning theory is
required. This paper examines the three broad philosophies of Behaviourism, Cognitive
Theory, and Constructivism and reviews their potential for delivering tertiary education
via the Web. Problems with the Web are identified, such as the abstract textual nature of
current Web technology, and the poor interactivity resulting from limited bandwidth. 
One theory, Social Constructivism, views learning as a process of enculturation brought
about through social interaction. This paper proposes a pragmatic approach to the
implementation of Social Constructivist approaches. As the Web develops, and environments
rich in media and possessing a high level of interactivity become possible, the need for
Social Constructivist strategies may be reduced. In the mean time, the potential of the
Web as a communications medium rather than a mere content provider must not be ignored.
Education and the Web
The growth of the Internet and the Word Wide Web, in particular, are attracting the
attention of tertiary educational institutions worldwide. This is manifest in the
increasing number of distance education courses being offered in this medium (University
of Texas, 1997; Pagram & McMahon, 1997). It is significantly less expensive to produce
materials electronically than in printed form, and the material may easily be kept up to
date (Eklund, Garrett, Ryan, & Harvey, 1996). These reasons, combined with the cost
savings of a 'virtual campus' in real estate and contact time for the university, are
leading to the Web being seen as an effective alternative to traditional face to face
modes of education. It has been argued that students do not like to learn at a distance
(Simonsen, 1995), but the convenience and flexibility of an external mode of delivery for
those with busy life styles is making distance education an attractive proposition for
students (Truman, 1995). 
Caution is required to ensure that these financial imperatives do not dominate the push
for Web based learning. The proliferation of research which finds no significant effect
for technology still raises concerns (Russell, 1997). The Web and the Internet itself is,
after all, another in a long procession of technologies which offer much but whose
promise not always fulfilled; and the rabid enthusiasm of many Internet proponents is
tempered by the jaded cynicism of others. For every Nicholas Negroponte espousing the
Internet as humankind's best chance to respect and nurture the most obscure languages and
cultures of the world (Negroponte, 1996) there is a Clifford Stoll, presenting the Net as
a chimera of unfulfilled promise, which actually works against literacy and creativity
rather than promoting them (Stoll, 1995). 
There is little doubt that the Web is a significantly different medium to CD-ROM based
Interactive Multimedia (IMM). While some argue that the Web is becoming a strong
multimedia platform (Shotsberger, 1996), slow response times often make such environments
impractical. In essence, the Web remains true to its initial objective of being a means
of linking documents across a diverse network (Berners-Lee, 1989), and this raises
concerns over the level of interactivity and engagement that can be supported. While
there is no doubt that the potential of the Web as a global resource of information can
have a strong potential for learning, it is worth being mindful of the fact that the Web
does not ensure learning any more than a library on a university campus does (Reeves,
1996). Any approach to Web based learning must be guided by assumptions of what is to be
learned and how learning itself comes about.
A Theoretical Approach
I have argued elsewhere for the need to find Web learning solutions that are explicitly
grounded in theory, since learning strategies are informed by specific epistemological
assumptions (Ring & McMahon, 1997). At the risk of oversimplifying a complex issue, much
learning can be defined within the parameters of one or other of the three broad
theoretical approaches of Behaviourism, Cognitive Theory, and Constructivism.
Behaviourism
Behaviourism argues that learning takes place through a mechanism of stimulus and
response - a convenient approach since both the stimulus and response are manifest and
therefore measurable, and offer an empirical legitimacy to the 'soft' science of
education. The operant conditioning of Skinner (1974), with its focus on unpleasant and
pleasant consequences (reinforcement) as a means of shaping behaviour is perhaps the best
known educational application of behaviourism, and has lead to the development of
tangible guidelines for learning strategies such as a focus on incremental learning
(Slavin, 1991) and the need for consequences to be intermittent and timely (Slavin, 1991;
Langford, 1989).
These tenets have been rapidly adopted into models for instructional design and can
easily be adapted to the Web. Skinner himself advocated the use of teaching machines to
provide modularised learning based upon concrete behavioural objectives (Kratochwill &
Bijou, 1987). Behaviourism does appear to be limited, however, in the types of learning
it supports:
The origin of the decline in adherence to behaviourism was not that classical
conditioning, operant conditioning and imitation do not exist but that behaviourists made
the mistake of thinking that these three learning processes could explain all learning.
(Langford, 1989, p. 4)
Since it relies almost exclusively on observable behaviour and does not account for
individual thought processes, the roll of behaviourism in learning is necessarily limited
to the types of learning which can be easily observed such as factual recall, rather than
less clearly defined learning which involves internal conceptual change within the
learner.
Cognitive Theory
In A Study of Thinking, Bruner (1956) provided a strong argument for why behaviourist
theories have fallen from grace in favour of those that acknowledge the role of the
individual in mediating learning, claiming:
It has resulted from a recognition of the complex processes that mediate between the
classical 'stimuli' and 'responses' out of which stimulus-response learning theories
hoped to fashion a psychology that would by-pass anything smacking of the 'mental.' This
impeccable peripheralism could not last for long. (p. vii)
More recent developments in understanding of how the brain processes information have
become influential to the extent that techniques of encoding and retrieval from memory
have become integral to most models of Instructional Design. Gagne's Events of
Instruction (Gagne, Briggs & Wager, 1998), for example, has a strong focus oon cognitive
aspects such as stimulating recall of prior learning and enhancing learner retention, as
well as behaviourist sequences of presenting stimuli and eliciting performance.
Such approaches can be easily supported by the Web. The implementation of Common Gateway
Interface Forms as well as Shockwave (Macromedia) and Java (Sun Microsystems)
applications as well as commercial applications available such as Web Test (University of
Waterloo, 1996) greatly assist with the development of tutorials and assessment within
such a paradigm However, while the Web in its current form is a good delivery medium for
finite knowledge and can incorporate strategies to aid encoding and retention, the goals
of cognitive learning are often broader, and incorporate skills such as problem solving
and critical thinking. It is when these educational outcomes are confronted that the Web
becomes severely challenged. 
Constructivism
Constructivism goes beyond the study of how the brain stores and retrieves information to
examine the ways in which learners make meaning from experience. Rather than the
transmission of knowledge, learning is an internal process of interpretation:
Learners do not transfer knowledge from the external world into their memories; rather,
they create interpretations of the world based upon their past experiences and their
interactions in the world. How someone construes the world, their existing metaphors, is
at least as powerful a factor influencing what is learned as any characteristic of that
world (Cunningham, 1992, p. 36)
While Constructivism does not necessarily deny the existence of an objective reality, it
does deny the existence of an objective knowledge since there are many ways to structure
the world, and there are many meanings or perspectives for any event or concept. Thus,
there is not a correct meaning that we are striving for (Duffy & Jonassen, 1992). It is
this rejection of absolutism that characterises constructivist approaches to learning,
and it is a radical ontological departure from the previous theories discussed.
Most cognitive theory, and the constructivist approaches that have grown out of it, argue
that learning should be durable, transferable and self-regulated (Di Vesta and Rieber,
1987 cited by Hannafin & Rieber, 1989). Mechanisms need to be in place to promote the
deeper internal processing required for such learning to occur. The high level of
interaction required for such processing, however, clearly demands more of the Web than
merely being a delivery vehicle for information. While some view the Web itself as a
cognitive tool for investigating and representing knowledge (Reeves & Reeves, 1997) and
as a semantic knowledge space which will mirror learners' own developing cognitive
structures (Lambert & Walker, 1996), attempts to create specific Web sites which are
constructivist in nature are rare. While high fidelity simulations and microworlds are
now common place with CD-ROM based Multimedia, bandwidth issues conspire with the
primitive nature of HTML to create pages that are usually flat and lacking in the
interactivity required within a constructivist approach.
Social Constructivism
Beyond Cognition
In many respects the Web is an ideal forum for constructivist learning, and despite its
limitations, HTML does offer some interesting opportunities. Hypertext links work by
association rather than indexing and it could be argued that this free association can be
disorientating. Yet, the counter argument that it operates much like the way humans think
(Gygi, 1990) suggests intriguing possibilities for the meaningful linking of data
required for the information processing within a cognitive framework.
Cognitive Constructivism, as derived from the work of Piaget (1977) defines learning as a
process of accommodation, assimilation, and equilibration (Piaget, 1977). This is a
dialectic process in which the subject resolves perturbations in the coherence of his or
her structuring activities by coordinating and constructing new, more adequate cognitive
structures (Saxe, 1991). One complementary approach, Cognitive Flexibility Theory (Spiro,
1995), may be particularly informative. This theory argues for multiple representations
of content where knowledge is highly interconnected and complex (unsimplified) (Archee &
Duin, 1995). The potential of the Web to present a variety of information sources may
help to stimulate the cognitive conflict required within a Piagetian approach. This
theory, though, also calls for cased based authentic learning, and does not provide
specific strategies for how engagement with the disparate complex information that the
Web offers can be ensured.
It is here that Social Constructivism may offer some hope. Pioneered by theorists such as
Vygotsky (1978), this paradigm argues for the importance of culture and context in
forming understanding. Learning is not a purely internal process, nor is it a passive
shaping of behaviours. Vygotsky favoured a concept of learning as a social construct
which is mediated by language via social discourse.
Social Constructivism and Contextual Learning
While Piaget did account for the social transmission of knowledge (Langford, 1989), the
interplay between social life and cognitive development processes was not a core concern,
his focus instead being on the formal properties of action without regard for the
situatedness of actions in a sociohistorically articulated web of meanings (Saxe, 1991,
p. 6). Traditional behaviourist/instructivist approaches strive for context independence,
whereas a Social Constructivist paradigm views the context in which the learning occurs
as central to the learning itself. 
Underlying the notion of the learner as an active processor is the assumption that there
is no one set of generalized learning laws with each law applying to all domains (Di
Vesta, 1987, p. 208). Decontextualised knowledge does not give us the skills to apply our
understandings to authentic tasks because we are not working with the concept in the
complex environment, experiencing (exploring, evaluating) the complex interrelationships
in that environment that determine how and when the concept is used (Duffy & Jonassen,
1992). One Social Constructivist notion is that of authentic or situated learning, where
the student takes part in activities which are directly relevant to the application of
learning and which take place within a culture similar to the applied setting (Brown,
Collins, & Duguid, 1989). Cognitive Apprenticeship has been proposed as an effective
constructivist model of learning which attempts to enculturate students into authentic
practices through activity and social interaction in a way similar to that evident -- and
evidently successful -- in craft apprenticeship (Ackerman, 1996, p. 25).
Reeves claims that most existing examples of WBI [Web Based Instruction] employ academic
tasks, but WBI can be designed to focus on authentic tasks relevant to learners (Reeves &
Reeves, 1997). Yet this assertion is yet to be demonstrated with research and existing
examples on the Web. Some sites, such as Virginia University's Interactive Frog
Dissection (Kinzie, 1994), use video to provide realistic representations of content, but
interactivity is limited to hotspots which judge responses and dictate navigation through
the tutorial. Also, video is slow to download and does not account for authentic activity
rather than merely authentic representation. 
In highly concrete knowledge domains this is a very real problem. A trade such as
Plumbing, for example, requires skills which involve enactment on a physical environment.
The difficulty the Web has in creating such authentic simulations appears to limit its
capacity to accommodate this. Even more ill-structured academic areas such as History and
Philosophy require a level of context, even if that context is the academic one requiring
the implementation of a culturally specific methodology and use of language. It is here,
perhaps, that a Social Constructivist approach may be particularly useful. It could be
argued that the use of the Web is best suited to that of a communications medium for
collaborative approaches to learning rather than as a 24 hour a day glorified whiteboard
(Archee & Duin, 1995). Such a use would involve a high level of social rather than
physical interaction; an aspect well supported by the Web and integral to a Social
Constructivist approach.
Social Interaction and Learning
Going so far as to reject the 'botanical' and 'zoological' models of physiologists such
as Piaget that see maturation as a passive biologically fixed process, Vygotsky favoured
of a concept of learning as a social construct which is mediated by language via social
discourse. In our complex use of language, humans are unique and it has become the
primary enabling tool of learning:
The most significant moment in the course of intellectual development, which gives birth
to the purely human forms of practical and abstract intelligence, occurs when speech and
practical activity, two previously completely independent lines of development, converge.
(Vygotsky, 1978, p. 24)
Language and communication become the principle focus, and if one is to believe the claim
that throughout most of their lives people learn and work collaboratively, not
individually (Resnick, 1988, cited by Brown et al, 1989), then a framework based upon
co-operative learning and social negotiation may be useful. While such an approach does
not deny a Piagetian perspective, it also contains a major strength in that it can help
to form learning is appropriate to the culture in which it is to be implemented (Tudge,
1990).
Laurillard emphasises learning as an iterative process, involving discursive, adaptive,
interactive, and reflexive qualities, the main focus being on teacher-student
relationship since academic knowledge consists in descriptions of the world, and
therefore comes to be known through a discursive interaction between teacher and student
(Laurillard, 1993, p. 89). Other studies, too, argue for the importance of mentoring in
the process of learning (Archee & Duin, 1995; Brown et al., 1989).
Most Social Constructivist models, such as that proposed by Jonassen (1994), however,
also stress the need for collaboration among learners, in direct contradiction to
traditional competitive approaches. One Vygotskian notion, that has significant
implications for peer collaboration, is that of the 'Zone of Proximal Development.'
Defined as the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by
independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through
problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers
(Vygotsky, 1978), it differs from the fixed biological nature of Piaget's stages of
development. Through a process of 'scaffolding' a learner can be extended beyond the
limitations of physical maturation to the extent that the the development process lags
behind the learning process (Vygotsky, 1978).
This has significant implications for the Web as a communications medium. While it may
not be highly interactive in a physical sense, the Web has strong potential for social
interactivity. The goal of this type of approach is the achievement of 'virtual
communities' of learners on the Internet working in small collaborative groups to achieve
a common goal (Dillenbourg & Schneider, 1995). While it would appear that care is
necessary in the formation of such groups, it has been proposed that heterogenous
grouping can assist in the creation of zones of proximal development (Walker & Lambert,
1996).
Traditional Internet communication tools such as E-mail, Newsgroups, Internet Relay Chat,
and MOOs offer both the rapid synchronous communication of normal speech as well as
asynchronous interaction which may help to promote a more reflective metacongitive
approach. With the use of Web browser plug-ins and server software such as Ichat, such
facilities are now becoming available in a more cohesive form on the Web. Examples of
learning through communication can be seen in commercial environments such as TopClass
(WBT Systems, 1997) which have no actual content but provide the functionality required
for real-time communication and collaborative learning.
The Need for Pragmatism
It would be convenient to see Social Constructivism as a single solution to the
limitations of the Web, but no one theoretical approach is likely to achieve the broad
range of educational outcomes required from tertiary study. Both Cognitive Theory and
Constructivism are not without their critics, who are often damning in their observations
of what are, after all, philosophies much less open to the rigorous scientific testing
inherent in a behaviourist paradigm. Epistemologically, the relativism of Constructivism
is particularly contentious. Constructivism focuses on the individual interpretation of a
perceived external reality, and it has been claimed that individual understanding and
conceptualisation is parasitic upon this extra-individual scientific domain, leading to
the criticism that Constructivism is old unpalatable, empiricist wine in a new bottle
(Matthews, 1992)
One of the most tangible criticisms of Social Constructivism is the type of learning it
supports. While it may be true that social negotiation is a useful approach to achieving
consensual understanding of ill-structured subject matter, even in the 'softest' subjects
there is often a body of undisputed knowledge. Constructivist strategies are often not
efficient, resulting in a trial-and-error approach to the performance in the real world
(Merrill, 1997). 
Explicit guidelines for the use of real-time chat and threaded discussion lists have yet
to be developed and there is little doubt that the unique attributes of on-line social
interaction will play a large part in the effectiveness of the Web as a collaborative
medium. Recent experiences with the use of Listservs at Edith Cowan University have
produced mixed results. When a clear structure through prescribed activities is given to
the interaction which takes place, students have anecdotally expressed positive outcomes
from the experience. The discomfort which some students initially experience in posting
their ideas to the 'ether' of cyberspace, as well as low participation rates where social
interaction is seen as an adjunct rather than an integral component of study, however,
suggest more research in this area is needed.
Finally, it must be noted that the Web, and Internet in general are likely to change
significantly in coming years. Increasing bandwidth and processing power will make
activities such as video conferencing and real time visual manipulation of data across
large distances a reality. This will undoubtedly impact greatly on on-line educational
practice. In the mean time, however, where the goals of instruction are broader than can
be easily accounted within traditional approaches, it may be that instructional
strategies informed by a Social Constructivist paradigm can help to lessen the
inadequacies for highly interactive authentic learning which are manifest in the Web in
its current form.
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