FREE ESSAY ON RELIGIOUS CONFLICT THROUGH THE AGES

RELIGIOUS CONFLICT THROUGH THE AGES

The role religion plays in world history is, at best, tremendous. Through the ages,
religion has both unified and divided civilizations often bringing extreme human
casualty, in the case of division, or creating interesting new cultures, in the case of
the latter. In the Ancient civilizations such as the Greek, Kush and Egyptian empires
religion serves as a catalyst further strengthening the bond found in such homogeneous
societies. In these civilizations it is important to note that the inhabitants did not
conceive of religion in terms of a belief system in a higher moral authority, rather, the
belief system was such a part of their lifestyle that there was no differentiation. In
discussing ancient civilizations such as the Greek and Kush empires it is also important
to understand that nonconformity was not even a mode of thinking, therefore, there was no
room for religious disunity. In homogeneous societies, religion serves to further bridge
the culture together. This is not the case in other later civilizations. England's King
Henry VIII separation from the Roman Catholic Church in the 16th century presents the
most interesting scenario in discussing the role of religion and how it either unites or
divides people. For the first time, moreso than Rome's conversion to Christianity, a
religious division was taking place within a relatively homogeneous society. Religion
perhaps is predominately viewed by most contemporaries as problematic given the current
divisions among many Catholics and Protestants in Ireland and the continuing conflict
between Muslims and Hebrews in the Middle East. The Crusades serve as an example of how
two religiously unified societies become fierce competitors in the conquest for world
domination, in this sense, religion is divisive. The dynamics in determining whether
religion unites or divides people are extremely complex especially when discussing
civilizations from the Egyptians to the English dynasties. However, three distinctions
can be outlined in this discussion. Firstly, religion serves as a catalyst further
unifying homogeneous civilizations such as the Greek, Ku*censored*e and Egyptian
societies, secondly, religion serves as a primary focus of difference when two
homogeneous societies, such as the Muslims and the Christians involve themselves in a
conflict for spiritual dominance, and, thirdly, how religion, in some homogenous
societies such as the Protestant Reformation of the late Tudor and early Stuart dynasties
in England, serves to divide the people.
Religious observance in ancient civilizations serves to further bridge the connectedness
that the people of those societies felt. In the ancient Greek, Ku*censored*e and and
Egyptian cultures religion was such a integral part of their lifestyle that it was
totally indistinguishable in terms of contemporary classifications. The ancient Greeks
held close to a common polytheistic belief system and operated the government, domestic
lifestyle, and recreation from this system. The evidence is abounds in that the Olympic
Games were held at the feast of Zeus at Olympia in Elis, and the Pythian Games were held
at Delphi, in honor of Apollo. Although the Greeks were advanced in the governmental
procedures such as their creation of the republic, Kings such as Darius yielded extreme
power and control. The Ku*censored*es who first known around the sixth century B. C.(538
B.C.) were the darker skinned people who rivaled, to a small extent, the great Egyptian
dynasties. The Ku*censored*es had a central belief system that revolved around the ka or
soul as Miriam Ma'at Ka Re Monges explains in her book entitled Kush: The Jewel of Nubia.
The ka was used as a term for the creative and sustaining power of life which every human
being shared by entering the world. Another important factor in explaining how religion
within homogeneous societies serves as a bonding force is the Ku*censored*e custom of
regicide. In Meroe as well as other Ku*censored*e kingdoms, the killing of the king was
an accepted custom. The religious belief is that the King's physical well being was
directly tied to the gods and to the fertility of the lands. Monges, in her book, further
contends that:
...since the king was responsible for Maat[term a number of positive qualities, i.e.
righteousness and truth] and since the fertility of the land was necessary for balance
and order, the decreased vitality of the king would affect the production of the land.
This suggests an underlying reason for the ritual killing of the king...(109)This was an
accepted custom for ages until the belief system was challenged by King of Ethiopia
Ergamenes during the reign of the second Ptolemy. Ergamenes was educated in Greece, and,
therefore, did not have the true understanding of Ku*censored*e custom as his
predecessors. Two belief systems clashed. Eragmenes was the first to have the courage to
disdain the command because of his Greek training, consequently, he puts the priests to
the sword, and after abolishing this custom ordered affairs after his own will. This
occurrence serves as concrete example of how religion can become extremely dangerous when
one, in power, disrupts the common belief system of a homogeneous society. Monges, in her
book, further contemplates the Ergamenes situation:
The ritual killing of the king was being practiced by these African people. It isapparent
that the culture was not fully understood by these outsiders. Didorus[Greek historian who
records the account] writes that prior to 
Ergamenes, the ritual killing of the king was accepted by the simple mind of a creature
shaped by old and ineffective customs. The Greek mind separated the material and the
spiritual.(113)Precisely, the Greek mind in Ergamenes did not allow him to simply give up
his wealth for something spiritual that he could not see. In the case of Ergamenes the
only bloodshed caused was that of the priests, however, in other cases where two belief
systems clash, especially when these two belief systems are religions dedicated to world
dominance such as with the Christians and the Muslims, the extreme human destruction is
incalculable. The ancient Egyptian civilization, which spans over 3 millenium, is yet
another example of how religion within the contexts of a homogeneous society further
bridges people to a commonality. For the most part, Ancient Egyptian religion was
polytheistic with tremendous pyramids and other religious objects dedicated to this
religion. An example of how important religious conformity is among the ancient Egyptians
one can look at the reign of Ahmenhotep IV. Amenhotep IV undertook a religious reform by
displacing all the traditional deities with the sun god Aton . In the god's honor, the
pharaoh changed his name to Akhenaton, Akhenaton's reforms were one of the earliest
attempts to enforce monotheism among a longstanding polytheistic culture. Images and
inscriptions of other gods were removed, moreover, Akhenaton, to further enforce his
views, moved the country's capital from Thebes to a place up north which he called
Akhetaton. His obsessive concentration on religious reform allowed for the empire to
disintegrate to a degree. After his death, Tutankhamun, restored the original gods and
returned the capital back to Thebes. Again the internal religious belief system of a
homogeneous culture is threatened, but unlike the case of Ergamenes in the Ku*censored*e
kingdom, Akhenaton's reforms were overturned. In these three cultures, one can readily
observe how religion serves as a catalyst further strengthening the bond of the
homogeneous societies. Only in cases, where the religious belief system is threatened is
the continuity of the civilization in jeopardy.
Religious observance in ancient civilizations serves to further bridge the connectedness
that the people of those societies felt. In the case of the Muslims and the Christians,
the long history of the Crusades serves as an example of how two groups of people
spanning borders and languages side themselves on religion alone. The First Crusade was
called by Pope Urban II in 1095. Urban was a reforming, activist pope who according to
Dr. Ellis Knox was looking for some great event or cause. Pope Urban II gave a speech,
which directly leads to the first but not last lengthy battles of the Crusades. Knox
gives a summary of what Urban II says on his website page. Christians are being oppressed
and attacked; the holy places are being defiled; and Jerusalem itself is groaning under
the Saracenyoke. The Holy Sepulchre is in Muslim hands.The West must march in defense of
the Holy Land. All should go, rich and poor alike. God himself will lead them, for they
will be doing His work. There will be absolution and remission of sins for all who die
here they are poor and miserable sinners - there they will be rich and happy, true allies
of God. Let them march next summer. God wills it!
(http://history.idbsu.edu/westciv/crusades/03.htm)The history of the Crusades is as
dynamic and complex as all the battles and events that take place. A series of defeats
and triumphs for both the Christians and the Muslims provide Europe with more of a Muslim
influence and set the stage for the Middle East being the breadbasket for Islam. Knox, in
the last page description of the Crusades in his website, brilliantly divulges:
It is common for textbooks to talk about the results of the crusades: increased contact
with the East, opening of markets, Arab influences on styles and customs, changes in
military practice. While all these certainly came about at one time or another, crusades
were preached from the end of the eleventh century on into the sixteenth century. One has
to be cautious in assigning any sort of result to a movement that covers five hundred
years. http://history.idbsu.edu/westciv/crusades/21.htm)One must be cautious in assigning
any significant historic event or movement that evolved from the Crusades but the quote
is included to show the how religion has played such a vital role in dividing people.
Knox further argues that making enemies of the church became such a commonplace activity
that Crusading activity simply became a part of European culture. He also contends: In a
sense, the religious wars of the Protestant Reformation are the logical result of this
mentality; by the time Europeans had exhausted themselves in internal religious war, we
hear no more about wars against the infidel.
Exactly, the internal religious wars had become external which sets the historical stage
for the Protestant Reformation.
The third distinction outlined earlier discusses how religion in homogeneous societies
can divide people. The Protestant Reformation perhaps is the best example of this
occurrence. Unlike Ergamenes in the Ku*censored*e Empire and Akhenaton in the Ancient
Egyptian civilization, King Henry VIII's great matter altered the course of history
forever and divided people along distinct lines. Henry VIII, desperate for a son and
believing that Catharine of Aragon could not provide him a son, seeks an annulment from
their marriage on grounds that Catharine violated their marriage by consummating her
first marriage to his brother who died. The Vatican in Italy did not support the King's
claim therefore he separates from the Roman Catholic Church and creates the Anglican
Church of England. The ramifications that this move had on Parliament and the people of
England were paramount. Parliament had new found power in that the Church money no longer
flowed to the Vatican and the King needed to get Parliament's permission for most funds.
King Henry VIII, however, successfully starts the tradition of Protestantism in Europe,
which ultimately leads to the rise of Protestantism as a major religious world force.
England after the transition, however, faced constant threats of revolution and plot
attempts on their king's court. The tragic rule of Queen Mary illustrates this point
best. Like Akhenaton and Ergamenes she attempts to change her people's religion but,
unlike the previous two mentioned, Mary attempts to bring a religion that her people
traditionally serve, Catholicism, back to England. Her reign was filled with people being
burned at the stake with the charge of heresy. Queen Mary's marriage to Philip II of
Spain did not contribute in her endeavor of bringing England back to Rome's control.
Mary's tragic reign ultimately ends in her death in 1558. She alone is responsible for
the destruction and tragedy she brings to her people as Stuart E. Prall in his book
entitled Church and State in Tudor and Stuart England explains:
The belief that the people and the monarch should share the same religion Was deeply
ingrained throughout Western Europe. It was Mary and her advisors Who forced Cranmer and
England to choose[Protestantism]. Once Mary 
Combined mass burnings at the stake with a pro-Spanish foreign policy, all In the name of
the Roman church, the eventual triumph of a monarchial English Protestantism appeared to
be inevitable.(68)
The issue at hand with the Protestant Reformation is the a homogeneous people had deep
religious divisions internally due to a shift in religious practice.
Religion has both united and divided societies since the beginning of history. As
demonstrated with the ancient Ku*censored*e, Greek, and Egyptian cultures, homogeneous
societies use religion as a bridge further developing the interconnectedness of the group
of people. The second distinction made in discussing whether or not religion unites or
divides is understanding the origins and plight of the Crusades. When two homogeneous
groups of people with differing belief systems collide, the results are horrific. The
Protestant Reformation provides a twist in the discussion. A homogeneous people with
religion being problematic in that it divides them between their King and their God.
Religion is at once dividing and uniting. It serves as a means for humans to explain
their existence and substantiate their place in this world, however, as demonstrated the
impact of religion in world civilizations has been tremendous, and should continue to
be.
Sentence Outline
Thesis: There are, however, three distinctions that can be outlined in the discussion of
how religion divides or unites civilizations. Firstly, religion serves as a catalyst
further unifying homogeneous civilizations such as the Greek, Ku*censored*e and Egyptian
societies, secondly, religion serves as a primary focus of difference when two
homogeneous societies, such as the Muslims and the Christians involve themselves in a
conflict for spiritual dominance, and, thirdly, how religion, in some homogenous
societies such as the Protestant Reformation of the late Tudor and early Stuart dynasties
in England, serves to divide the people.
I. In the Ancient civilizations such as the Greek, Kush and Egyptian empires religion
serves as a catalyst further strengthening the bond found in such homogeneous societies.
A. In homogeneous societies religion serves to further bridge the culture together.
B. The dynamics in determining whether religion unites or divides people are extremely
complex especially when discussing civilizations from the Egyptians to the English
dynasties.
II. Religious observance in ancient civilizations serves to further bridge the
connectedness that the people of those societies felt.
III. Religious observance in ancient civilizations serves to further bridge the
connectedness that the people of those societies felt.
IV. The third distinction outlined earlier discusses how religion in homogeneous
societies can divide people. The Protestant Reformation perhaps is the best example of
this occurrence.
V. Religion has both united and divided societies since the beginning of history. As
demonstrated with the ancient Ku*censored*e, Greek, and Egyptian cultures, homogeneous
societies use religion as a bridge further developing the interconnectedness of the group
of people.
Bibliography
Baines, John. Religion in Ancient Egypt. Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 
1991.
Hiro, Dilip. Holy Wars: The Rise of Islamic Fundamentalism. New York: Routledge, 
1989.
Knox, Ellis. The Crusades. The Crusades (31 July 1995) 21pp. Online. Internet.
31 July 1995.
Monges, Miriam Ma'at Ka Re. Kush: The Jewel of Nubia. Trenton: Africa World 
Press, 1997.
Prall, Stuart E. Church and State in Tudor and Stuart England. Arlington Heights: 
Harlan Davidson, 1993.