FREE ESSAY ON GENOCIDE

GENOCIDE

The Genocide of the Chiricahua Indian Tribe United States history is taught in public
schools when we are old enough to understand its importance. Teachings of honorable
plights by our forefathers to establish this great nation are common. However, specific
details of this establishment seem to slip through the cracks of our educational
curriculum. Genocide by definition is the deliberate and systematic destruction of a
racial, political or cultural group. The Chiricahua Indian Tribe of the American
southwest and northern Mexico suffered almost complete annihilation at the hands of the
American policy makers of the late nineteenth century, policy makers that chose to
justify their means by ignoring their own tyrannical ways. 
It has been discovered that Apaches in the late 1800s were reported to exist in four
separate bands, or clusters of rancherias, although how far back in time the division
occurs is unknown (Griffen 5). The native name for the easternmost band was the Chihene,
or red painted people; they were also known as Victorio, Mangas Coloradas, and Loco
Apaches after the Spanish names of important leaders. To the south and west were the
Chokonen or Rising Sun People. These people were often called Central Chiricahua, True
Chiricahua, and Cochise Apaches. North and west of the Chokonen were the Bedonkohe, In
Front at the End People sometimes called the Geronimo Apaches. The southernmost
Chiricahua band was the Ndeinda, enemy people. They were also called the Nedni and
Nednai, Southern Chiricahua, Pinery, and Bronco Apaches (Cole 10). These names differ
among some scholars, but the majority of them can agree consistently on at least four
bands, even if the names are different. Apache history is rich in custom, tradition, and
worship of an all-powerful supernatural force known as The Power. Although accounts are
different, after the creation of the world, Ussen created "White Painted Woman". This
supernatural female was the most important figure in Chiricahua religious belief. She was
at once the progenitor of the Chiricahua people, the symbol of female activity and life,
and the sponsor of all that was peaceful and gentle in human relationships. According to
Chiricahuas, it was White Painted Woman who befriended the G'an, thus winning the
sponsorship of the Apaches in a world filled with dangerous forces. White painted woman
also bought forth two sons who survived infancy. One was Killer of Enemies, conceived
from the sun. The other, Child of the Water, was the conception of lightning (Cole
14-15). It were these mythical characters that provided the basis for basic
understandings of nature as well as the beings who were venerated in various ceremonies
among the Apaches. It is important to understand the importance of the aforementioned
Power and its idea that nothing could be accomplished without it. Raiding and war were
common aspects of Chiricahua behavior. Far more productive than agriculture was the
practice of raiding (Cole 48). Usually raiding communities of Northern Mexico called
Fronteras; equipment and supplies were obtained through these activities. It was not
unusual for the Chiricahua to raid neighboring bands or rancherias as well. War on the
other hand was normally an act of revenge, an ethical commitment to retaliate for the
deaths of murdered relatives, a religious act that bound a man to the larger complex of
Apache values and ideals (Griffen 11). The leaders of the bands were usually chosen at
the time and planning capabilities of each raid or war. Successful raids could mean a
higher position or more respect among the band, while failure could bring the tag or a
loss of Power to the warrior. The older, more respected warriors normally did planning.
After raids Apaches celebrated their victories with ritual and religious symbolism, large
quantities of food, tiswin (a mild fermented alcoholic beverage), singing, dancing and
distribution of the booty taken on the raid (Griffen 13). Training was an essential
endeavor for the young Apache because raiding and war were normal ways of life and a
means of survival. Ideally, boys trained rigorously and practiced running long distances,
mounting horses, shooting with the bow, parrying with the lance, jumping into cold water
and similar activities to toughen themselves and perfect fighting skills. The young man
was taken under the wing of an older, more experienced warrior where he was basically a
servant. For his services, he was given knowledge about the animals and their tendencies,
as well as skills in hunting for food. He learned to be truthful, to listen respectfully,
to remain silent until spoken to, to avoid activities that would jeopardize the safety of
the group, and to endure hardships without complaint (Griffen 13). Women on the other
hand, were given training with regards to domestic affairs. Cooking, gathering, treating
hides, and other essential daily requirements were taught at a fairly young age, usually
by the grandparents. Since roles of both male and females were held with high regards to
each other, a mutual respect between them was present. Americans appeared in the
southwest in the closing years of the Spanish Empire. They were unofficial
representatives of United States interests, usually trappers seeking the abundant amount
of beaver in the waters of the area. The Chiricahua were not hostile to Americans
initially, unless they were mistaken for Spaniards or Mexicans. Events occurring in
Mexican provinces such as Chihuahua and Hermosillo led to the eventual gaining of enemy
status by the trappers. The Mexicans at one hundred dollars offered a warrior, fifty for
a woman, and twenty-five for a child's scalp scalps of Chiricahua as bounty a warrior,
fifty for a woman, and twenty-five for a child's scalp. One party led by a man named John
Johnson was encouraged by the Mexican concessionaires at Santa Rita to attack the Chihene
in the region. Playing upon the credulity of the Chihene leader, Juan Jose, Johnson lured
the Apaches to a fiesta ambush. As Indians scrambled for gifts in the plaza, they were
shot down, and clubbed by Mexicans and Americans. Many of the Apaches were killed and the
rest fled (Cole 72-73). Needless to say, the trappers of the region had now obtained
official enemy status. Following the massacre at Santa Rita, the Johnson massacre, and
other events caused increased Apache hostilities. Kinsmen of the slain, apparently
relatives of an important chief of the Chihene, Mangas Coloradas attempted to avenge
their deaths (Griffen 174). Together with Chokonen, Bedenkohe, and Nednai, the mountains
were swept clear of trappers. In retaliation, more scalping activities against the Apache
were executed. Large numbers of Chiricahuas were killed in such diverse areas such as
Janos, the headwaters of Yaqui, and near Casas Grandes, Arizona. Some local groups were
entirely destroyed. No longer did Chiricahuas gather in large encampments for winter for
fear of attack. As a result of these bloody encounters, many of the Apache bands began
campaigns of scalping as well. No longer were prisoners taken and they were always put to
death in slow painful ways (Cole 74-75). The Mexican War of 1846-1848 brought United
States military forces into the southwest. Americans entered the region with
pre-conceived ideas of the savage Apache. Following the Mexican War, and in accordance
with the treaty of Guadeloupe Hidalgo Article XI, Americans were to compensate any raids
into Mexico from the new borderlines established. Attempts at stopping the raiding from
Unites States geographical Apaches proved to be an agitation for officials of the region
(Cole 77). Subsequently, the Gadsden Purchase Treaty of 1854, which abrogated Article XI,
increased the amount of land claimed by the United States. Since the Chiricahuas did not
recognize the Treaty of Guadeloupe Hidalgo, they refused to agree to the Gadsden
Purchase. They held the belief that Mexicans could not cede land or sell Apache lands
they had never controlled (Cole 78). In my research I have discovered that one of the
most respected and highly regarded Chief among the Chiricahua Tribe was Cochise, usually
referred to as Oak by his people. As 1861 dawned, Cochise had already spent more than
three-quarters of his life had in relative obscurity as far as the non-Chiricahua world
was concerned. He was approaching fifty and had two wives, the first of whom bore him two
sons, and the second one son (Sweeney 142). It was said that Cochise possessed remarkable
skills in tribal diplomacy as well as encounters with white generals and politicians
(Sweeney 1). He was the leader who was present at the incident that opened hostilities
between the Chiricahuas and the Americans: The Bascom Affair at Apache Pass, known by the
Indians as Cut the Tent a reference to Cochise's means of escape (Sweeney 144). The
Bascom affair started on January 27, 1861, by two parties of Apaches who raided the ranch
of John Ward eleven miles south of Fort Buchanan. They stole a reported twenty head of
cattle and kidnapped a twelve year old boy named Felix. Detachments of soldiers from Fort
Buchanan were dispatched led by First Lieutenant George Nicholas Bascom, a brave young
officer with no Indian experience. While investigating the matter, tracks led toward the
San Pedro River into Chokonen country, therefore implicating Cochise's people. Public
opinion supported the belief, although historically it is believed that the raiders were
probably White Mountain Apaches (Sweeney 146). Bascom's command element, headed by a man
named Colonel Morrison, issued orders to retrieve the boy and the stock by any means
necessary and to punish those responsible (Sweeney 146). Cochise meanwhile may have sent
messengers to inquire about the Ward boy from his neighbors to the west. Bascom's men had
marched directly into Apache Pass and had set camp near there about one mile from the
stage station. I feel that it is important to point out that the Chokonen or Cochise's
people were well received by the people of this area; they were not enemies so to speak.
Bascom reportedly waited impatiently for the arrival of Cochise who was probably awaiting
word from his runners in the west (Sweeney 149). Then it is difficult to account for what
happened next because of different accounts, but I will go with the most popular story.
Apparently Cochise arrived with several members of his family, including his brother, two
or three warriors believed to be his nephews, his wife and two of his children. This
exemplified that Cochise may have gone to talk on a friendly basis to the soldiers.
Cochise denied any involvement in the matter, and was even willing to help in retrieval
of the boy, but Bascom was not convinced. Cochise and his people were to be detained
until Bascom that prompted Cochise to escape immediately by slitting his way through the
tent and running away returned the boy, a move. Men had surrounded the tent, by order of
Bascom, and Cochise was shot twice before his escape. His family was not so fortunate,
all were captured and at least one warrior was killed. Cochise vowed revenge. (Sweeney
151). On February 5, several days later, a mutual meeting ground for the two leaders was
proposed and the two met under a white flag of truce. Cochise pleaded for the release of
his family, but Bascom held firm saying that they would be freed just as soon as the boy
was restored; again Cochise denied having the boy. Three civilians entered into the
matter under protest of Bascom and they entered into a ravine and were seized. Cochise
broke for cover and the Apaches opened fire on Bascom's unarmed party wounding two.
Bascom estimated the strength of Cochise at five hundred, and fires and war cries could
be heard throughout the night. The fact that both sides had prisoners could have averted
anymore bloodshed, but the taking of Cochise's family hurt Americans chances of ever
gaining his trust back (Sweeney 153). Cochise was desperate for more whites to trade for
his people. He laid siege on the stage trail awaiting shipments through to Las Cruces,
New Mexico. The driver of the stage however was able to avert the attack and made it
through without death. Cochise left a note for Bascom for a final attempt to trade for
his people. He left the letter in a place that was supposed to be seen by whites in a
short time. The letter was never seen and Cochise took this as a refusal to trade.
Cochise planned an attack together with Mangas Coloradas and Francisco, chiefs of
neighboring bands. The plan was to cut the stock off while they were watering near a
spring prompting Bascom to engage near the spring. This would allow for Cochise and the
majority of his party to sweep the stage station and free his people. A well thought out
plan that did not work. Bascom repelled the Indians by quick decision and counter-attack.
This was the last attempt at freeing his people. The white prisoners were killed and
mutilated so that the white people would find them; Cochise lost his brother and two
nephews (Sweeney 160). The Apache Wars resumed throughout the decade of the 1860's and
into the early 1870's with Cochise being one of the main Apache belligerents. However
deeply rooted his hatred for the Americans, he knew that it was impossible to win a war
against them. In 1871, General Oliver Otis Howard arrived in Arizona with orders to
desist All-American military campaigns against the Apaches. He was taken to Tularosa, New
Mexico where a camp of nearly one thousand Chiricahuas were staying. With the aid of an
Indian scout, Howard met with Cochise to discuss a peace agreement and an inevitable
placement of the Chiricahua on a reservation, preferably along the Rio Grande somewhere
in New Mexico. Cochise disagreed, and proposed a reservation along the Eastern Arizona
border, to include the Chiricahua Mountains and land larger enough for hunting. On
October 13, 1872, final ceremonies concluded an agreement for peace, thus ending a war
which had lasted for a dozen years (Cole 113). Thomas Jeffords, Indian agent appointed to
the Cochise Reservation, dealt with several problems that were beyond his control.
Subsequent raiding was common practice although they had promised for it not to continue.
The idea that a form of centralized control, even with the influence of Cochise, was
ludicrous and not the Apache way. Logistics was a thorn in the side of Jeffords, because
he knew that when the supplies were low, the raiding would increase. After the death of
Cochise, Jeffords, although highly respected among the Chiricahua, was unable to maintain
any form of control among raiding bands from the reservation. The reduction of supplies
in 1876 led Jeffords to let loose the Chiricahua to hunt, which meant that they would
have to leave the reservation to pursue game. These hunting parties were almost
immediately caught up in conflict, and this was to be the beginning of the end for the
Cochise reservation in Arizona (Cole 156). In the early months of 1877, after the
official closing of the Cochise reservation, the Chiricahua were sent to San Carlos,
including Geronimo and his bands, while others were sent to the Mascelero reservation to
be integrated with other Apache factions. Misappropriation of supplies, small pox and
malaria caused some 350 people to leave the Mascelero reservation and head towards Mexico
or the Sierra Madres. Much of the same situation resurfaced from the 1960's. Apache raids
would continue and military action would follow, which would lead to more raids, all with
increasing loss of life on both sides (Cole 163). During the next five years, the pattern
of raid and search repeated in the Southwest. More and more frequently, leadership of
Apache warriors was ascribed to Geronimo, whose capture became the prime concern of the
United States authorities (Cole 164). By 1886 the general public was thoroughly alarmed
by the fearsome reputation of the Chiricahuas in general and of Geronimo in particular.
His surrender to General Nelson Miles has many different accounts, but this was actually
arranged by Apache scouts, mainly Chiricahua. It was written that Geronimo believed he
was to be reunited with his family and they were to be given a reservation of their own.
General Miles told him that they would be sent to Fort Marion, Florida and their fate
would rest in the hands of the Great Father, the President of the United States. On
September 5, the Chiricahuas at San Carlos were mustered for a headcount, surrounded by
troops, and disarmed. Under heavy guard they were sent in ten rail cars to Fort Marion, a
trip that lasted twelve days. Apache scouts who aided in the surrender of Geronimo were
also placed on the train and ultimately 469 Chiricahua were displaced from their
homelands and held as prisoners of war for the next 26 years at Fort Marion. Due partly
to overcrowding at Fort Marion, Chiricahuas under the age of 22 were sent to Pennsylvania
for education at a school specifically designed for this. In confinement however, a great
deal of people died due to disease and poor treatment, mainly because of malnutrition
although it was reported that health conditions were good there. A public outcry in the
press brought pressure on the government to move the tribe to more favorable surroundings
and by early 1887, the Apaches were moved to Mt. Vernon Barracks, Alabama. They remained
there until 1893 during which time the Apache cause received a great deal of attention in
the press. The Apaches had become a source of embarrassment to the U.S. Army and the
administration. General Miles negotiated their placement under his command at Fort Sill,
despite historical tensions among the tribes that resided there, the Comanches and
Kiowas. After some difficulty with the post commander, the homeless Apaches were sent to
Fort Sill, still prisoners of war (Cole 166). Rumors of an uprising never came to pass at
Fort Sill, and the Chiricahuas were making progress along the White man's road.
Agriculture and farming were embraced and students from Pennsylvania eventually returned
to their people, raising the level of literacy to almost fifty percent. Geronimo was
allowed to parade the country and made appearances at the St. Louis World Fair, selling
his autograph and buttons. Public pressure again mounted for the release of the
prisoners, and in August of 1912, Congress authorized the release of the Apaches
appropriating 200,000 dollars for their resettlement (Cole 167). Some families chose to
stay at Fort Sill buying unused lots of land from the Comanches or Kiowa, while others
chose to move to the Mascelero reservation in New Mexico where they remain today (Cole
168). In conclusion, I feel that it is important to note that the U.S. Government did not
fully understand the ways of the Chiricahua. The reservations were set up to fail based
upon the structures of the reservations themselves. The Apaches were raiders and
warriors, not farmers or settlers. Their hierarchy was set up so that leaders were picked
as a result of raids and war. Their system of economics was based almost entirely on
raids, so there was almost no way for young warriors to gain the attention of possible
wives. It was only a matter of time until conflict began. Also, I feel it is important to
note that they were faced with insurmountable odds. The people of the Southwest were
perfectly comfortable with the Chiricahuas complete extermination. They were up against
the Mexican Army as well as the U.S. The white man allowed the Apache to become
accustomed to his weapons because he knew that an Apache with his traditional bow and
arrow was even more deadly. The American invention of the Howitzer cannon killed or
turned away the bravest warriors by the hundreds. The diseases of the white man played a
large part in the death of countless Apaches because their immune systems were not strong
against them. History and some descendants of the original now only remember the proud
Chiricahuas. Their pagan ways were converted into Christianity and their folklore lost,
but not forgotten. I believe that their plights should be taught more widely in American
public schools to better understand how the southwest was and how it became to be.
Tyranny in American history would be too controversial for the majority of the
population; easier dealt with by not addressing it. It is also true that accounts of what
actually happened differ among many scholars. Since the Apaches do not like to speak of
the dead, their side of the story is difficult to obtain, and many American officers of
the Army are too quick to gain recognition for things they did concerning the
Chiricahuas. Finally, it is important to point out that it was the white man that invaded
the Indian Territory. The pride of the Chiricahuas would not allow this to happen, even
though they knew their defeat was inevitable; it was Apache way.
Bibliography
Cole, D.C. The Chiricahua Apache 1846-1876: From War to Reservation. New Mexico:
University of New Mexico Press, 1988. 
Griffen, William B. Apaches at War and Peace: The Janos Presidio 1750-1858. New Mexico:
University of New Mexico Press, 1988. 
Sweeney, Edwin R. Cochise: Chiricahua Apache Chief. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press,
Publishing Division of the University, 1991.