FREE ESSAY ON ARISTOTLE

ARISTOTLE

Aristotle
Aristotle was a Greek philosopher, logician, and scientist. Along with his teacher Plato,
Aristotle is generally regarded as one of the most influential ancient thinkers in a
number of philosophical fields, including political theory. 
Aristotle was born in 384 BC in Stagira in northern Greece. Aristotle came from a family
of physicians and he received training and education that inclined his mind towards the
study of nature phenomena. Aristotle's father died when he was young boy and his guardian
Proxenus raised him. Proxenus sent him to study at Plato's academy in Athens. Aristotle
stayed at the academy for twenty years until Plato's death in 347 B.C. Aristotle was
supposed to succeed Plato as head of the academy but Aristotle didn't because he had
different theories then Plato. 
After Aristotle left Plato's academy he went and lived with his friend Hermeas, ruler of
Atarneus and Assos in Mysia. Aristotle stayed there for three years during which time he
married Pythias, the niece of the king. After her death Aristotle also married Herpyllis
and he had a son, which he named after his father. Hermeias fell under the control of the
Persians, and refusing to betray his friends under torture, he was killed. After
Aristotle's dear friend Hermeias died Aristotle moved to Mytilene where he doubtless
engaged in biological research. King Amyntas asked Aristotle to tutor his son Alexander.
Aristotle tutored Alexander for five years until king Amyntas died and Alexander came to
power. During the time before King Amyntas died Aristotle introduced his nephew
Callisthenes to Alexander but warned him to be careful of what he said. Though Alexander
later took Callisthenes to Asia where he collected research materials, Callisthenes was
eventually suspected by Alexander of plotting against him with Hermolaus: he was confined
to an iron cage in which he became infested with vermin before being thrown to a lion.
In 323 BC Alexander the great died unexpectedly and anti-Macedonian forces overthrew the
government of Athens. Aristotle had close connections with the Macedonian royal family.
Aristotle was associated with the Macedonians and was unpopular with the new ruling
powers. The new government brought charge of impiety against Aristotle, but he fled to
his country house in Chalcis in Euboea to escape prosecution. Aristotle commented that he
fled so that " the Athenians might not have another opportunity of sinning against
philosophy as they had already done in the person of Socrates." Alone there he wrote
Antipater that he had become fonder of myths.
In 335 BC Aristotle went back to Athens and found out that the academy was flourishing
under Xenocrates. Aristotle opened his own academy, the Lyceum, he ran it for twelve
years. Some people called Aristotle's academy The Peripatetic School because he walked
around and discussed his ideas with the colleagues. Peripatetic are " people who walk
around." For the next thirteen years he devoted his energies to his teaching and
composing his philosophical treatises. He is said to have given two kinds of lectures:
the more detailed discussions in the morning for an inner circle of advanced students,
and the popular discourses in the evening for the general body lovers of knowledge. At
this Aristotle wrote extensively on a wide rage of politics, metaphysics, ethics, logic
and science. Aristotle agreed with Plato that the cosmos is rationally designed and that
philosophy can come to know absolute truths by studying universal forms. Their ideas went
in different direction but in that Aristotle thought that the one finds the universal in
particular things, while Plato believed the universal exists apart from particular
things, and that material things are only a show of true reality, which exists in the
place of ideas and forms. The differences between the two philosophers is that Plato
thought only pure mathematical reasoning was necessary, and therefore focused on the
metaphysics and mathematics, Aristotle, on the other hand, thought that in addition to
this " First Philosophy," it is also necessary to undertake detailed empirical
investigations of nature, and thus study what he called " second philosophy," which
includes such subjects as physics, mechanics and biology.
The life of Aristotle was spent in a period which he seemed confused and dim to
historians who have learned from Demosthenes to see it as the time of the loss of Greek
liberties and the decline of Greek ideal; it has seemed a period of stirring action which
came close to the fulfillment of an ambitious hope to those who see in the growth of
panhellenism preached by Isocrates the beginnings of more stable political organizations
and in the exploits of Alexander the Great and spread of Greek ideals. Aristotle spent a
large part of his life as an alien in Athens, and he seems to have been unsympathetic
with the ambitions of Alexander. Contemporary political events and social changes left
few marks on his political and moral philosophy, and the search for effects of social
conditions in his metaphysics and in his contributions to science has led only to
speculative generalizations concerning the influence of environment on thought: to the
conclusion that the existence of classes in society suggested hierarchies in his
conception of the universe, that slave labor led him to neglect the mechanical arts and
prefer the theoretic to the practical sciences, that his theories were therefore verbal
rather than based on the resources of experiences, and that his physical principles
reflected his conception of political rule. Apart from such speculations, it is clear
that the peace which was forced on Athens by Macedonian domination permitted Aristotle to
organize a course of studies and to initiate a vast scheme of research into the history
of political organizations, of science, and philosophy- the study of constitutions of
Greek states, of the history of mathematics and medicine, and of the opinions of
philosophers- as well as into the natural history of minerals, plants, and animals, and
to lay the foundations thereby for one of the first attempts at an encyclopedic
organization of human knowledge. Aristotle died of stomach illness and in his will
Aristotle made provisions for his family, Herpyllis, and his slaves, some of whom he
freed. Aristotle's writings were preserved by his student, Theophrastus. He was also the
successor as leader of the Perpatic School. Theophrastus' pupil Neleus and his heirs
concealed the books in a vault to protect them from theft, but dampness, moths and worms
damaged them. The books were found around 100 BC by Apellicon, who brought them to Rome.
In Rome, scholars took interest in the works and prepared new editions of them.
The early writings of Aristotle were intended for the general public. Very few of these
survived. What is left is mostly work that is intended for his serious students. His
approach on philosophy was not dogmatic but systematic. He constantly questioned his
conclusions and found difficulties. This is what made him one of the most influential
philosophers in Western thought.
The works of Aristotle fall under three heading: (1) dialogues and other works of a
popular character; (2) collections of facts and material from scientific treatment; and
(3) systematic works. Aristotle's systematic treatises are Logic, Physical works,
Psychological works, Works on natural history, and Philosophical works.
Aristotle's writings on the general subject of logic were grouped by the later
peripatetic under the name Organon, or instrument. From their perspective, logic and
reasoning was the chief preparatory instrument of scientific investigation. Aristotle
himself, however, uses the term "logic" as equivalent to verbal reasoning. The Categories
of Aristotle are classifications of individual words, and include the following ten;
substance, quantity, quality, relation, place, time, situation, condition, action,
passion. They seem to be arranged according to the order of the questions we would ask in
gaining knowledge of an object. For example, we ask, first, what a thing is, then how
great it is, next of what kind it is. Substance is always regarded as the most important
of these. Substances are further divided into first and second: first substances are
individual objects; second substances are the species in which first substances or
individual inhere.
Aristotle's views on astronomy, as presented in Metaphysics, Physics, De Caelo (On the
Heavens) and Simplicius' Commentary, will most likely seem very bizarre, as they are
based more on a priori philosophical speculation than empirical observation. Although
Aristotle acknowledged the importance of scientific astronomy - the study of the
positions, distances and motions of the stars - he nevertheless treated astronomy in the
abstract, linking it to his overall philosophical world picture. As a result, the modern
distinction between physics and metaphysics is not present in Aristotle, and in order to
fully appreciate him we must try to abandon this pre-conception. 
Aristotle argued that the universe is spherical and finite. Spherical, because that is
the most perfect shape; finite, because it has a center. The center of the earth, and a
body with a center cannot be infinite. He believed that the earth, too, is a sphere. It
is relatively small compared to the stars, and in contrast to the celestial bodies,
always at rest. For one of his proofs of this latter point, he referred to an empirically
testable fact: if the earth were in motion, an observer on it would see the fixed stars
as moving, just as he now observes the planets as moving, that is from a stationary
earth. However, since this is not the case, the earth must be at rest. To prove that the
earth is a sphere, he produced the argument that all earthly substances move towards the
center, and thus would eventually have to form a sphere. He also used evidence based on
observation. If the earth were not spherical, lunar eclipses would not show segments with
a curved outline. Furthermore, when one travels northward or southward, one does not see
the same stars at night, nor do they occupy the same positions in the sky. That the
celestial bodies must also be spherical in shape can be determined by observation. In the
case of the stars, Aristotle argued that they would have to be spherical, as this shape,
which is the most perfect, allows them to retain their positions. By Aristotle's time,
Empedocles' view that there are four basic elements - earth, air, fire and water - had
been generally accepted. Aristotle, however, in addition to this, postulated a fifth
element called aether, which he believed to be the main constituent of the celestial
bodies. This divine element, he believed, is uncompounded, ingenerated, eternal,
unalterable, and neither heavy nor light. It can be found in its purest form in the
celestial regions, but becomes adulterated in the area below the moon. Aristotle's view
of the universe was hierarchical, and he made a sharp distinction between the sub lunar
world of change, and the eternal and immutable heavens. 
Aristotle characterizes everything that exists into certain categories; substance,
quality, quantity, relation, etc. Substance is prior to the other categories since
substances exist as separate entities, while the other categories exist only as the
qualities of substance. These substances include individual substances like dog and chair
and also their species and genera like animal and furniture. For a dog is an animal, a
dog is not just some quality of an animal. 
Form is different from matter. A chair's form is the structure of the chair, the chair's
matter is wood. He does not accept Plato's notion of a transcendental Form of Chair; the
form of the chair is the form of that particular chair. The chair's matter, wood, can
also be divided into form and matter, since wood is made of earth, air, water, and fire
combined in a particular way. Aristotle calls prime matter the stuff that has no
particular form. He raises the question whether form can have no matter, to which he
answers that this form without matter is God. If matter becomes a chair the matter is
chair potentially, or capable of being a chair, whereas the form is the actuality in
virtue of which it is now an actual chair. Matter and form are the causes of what comes
to be. Aristotle defines four kinds of causes; 1) material cause - what something is made
of, 2) formal cause - what it is essentially, 3) efficient cause - what brought it into
being, and 4) final cause - what its function is. The causes apply to things and not
events" 
He was a great physicist and wrote many books on the subject. His most famous one is
Nicomacheun Ethics. The influence of Aristotle's philosophy has been pervasive; it has
even helped to shape modern language and common sense. His doctrine of the Prime Mover as
final cause played an important role in theology. Until the 20th century, logic meant
Aristotle's logic. Until the Renaissance, and even later, astronomers and poets alike
admired his concept of the universe. Zoology rested on Aristotle's work until British
scientist Charles Darwin modified the doctrine of the changelessness of species in the
19th century. In the 20th century a new appreciation has developed of Aristotle's method
and its relevance to education, literary criticism, the analysis of human action, and
political analysis
Aristotle, like Eudoxus and Callippus before him, believed that each planet followed the
path laid out by a certain number of spheres. Callippus had postulated 33 spheres in all,
4 each for Saturn and Jupiter, 5 each for Mars, Venus, Mercury, the sun and the moon. The
problem with this model, however, was that, according to Aristotle; it did not explain
how the motion of the outer spheres was to be prevented from interfering with the motion
of the inner spheres. Aristotle therefore attempted a mechanical explanation, and
postulated 22 counteracting spheres, which would set things in balance. It is generally
held that Aristotle's addition of these counteracting spheres complicated rather than
cleared up the problem of planetary motion. Aristotle's many-faceted theory of motion was
a fundamental part of his world picture. The complexity of this theory is evidenced in
the numerous interpretations offered by modern scholars. Here only the bare bones of it
will be presented. According to Aristotle, there were three kinds of motion: rectilinear,
circular and mixed. The four elements of the sub lunar world tend to move in straight
lines: earth downward, fire upward, water and air falling in between. Aether, on the
other hand, naturally moves in circles. He further maintained that everything that is
moving has to be set in motion by something else, and thus in order to avoid an infinite
regress, he posited a first mover. Aristotle's descriptions of such a prime mover
demonstrate how he mixes physics with metaphysics. In De Caelo, Aristotle equated the
prime mover of all things with the sphere of the fixed stars, which was itself moving
with unceasing motion. In the Metaphysics, however, he placed an unmoved prime mover
behind the fixed stars. He describes this transcendent first mover as eternal and without
magnitude; he says that it causes circular movement, and that is the kind of movement
that is most perfect, since it has no beginning or end; he states that it is good, and
its activity is the highest form of joy. It seems that at one point Aristotle thought of
the prime mover as somehow an integral part of the universe itself and at another as
existing outside space and time. These differences may mirror different objectives that
Aristotle had at various points in his career. 
Aristotle's hierarchical model of the universe had a profound influence on medieval
scholars, who modified it to correspond with Christian theology. Saint Thomas Aquinas,
for example, re-interpreted the prime movers as angels. Backed up by religious authority,
Aristotle's model lasted for centuries. Unfortunately, this had the effect of restraining
the progress of science, as few people dared to challenge the authority of the church.
Nevertheless, we can say of Aristotle that he made a contribution to astronomy simply by
starting to ask certain questions about the universe, thereby stimulating other minds to
do the same.
One of the most famous of Aristotle's contributions was a new notion of causality. Each
thing or event, he thought, has more than one 'reason' that helps to explain what, why,
and where it is. Earlier Greek thinkers thought that only one sort of cause can explain
itself; Aristotle said four. (The word Aristotle uses, aition, a responsible, explanatory
factor is not the same as the word cause now. These four causes are the material cause,
(the matter out of which a thing is made); the efficient cause, (the source of motion,
generation, or change); the formal cause, (the species, kind, or type); and the final
cause, (the goal, or full development, of an individual, or the intended function of a
construction or invention.) Although I don't know what these mean, they sound
philosophical. An example he gave is a young lion is made up of tissues and organs, its
material cause; the efficient cause is its parents, who generated it; the formal cause is
its species, lion; and its final cause is its built-in drive toward maturity. Another
example he gave is the material cause of a statue is the marble from which it was carved;
the efficient cause is the sculptor; the formal cause is the shape the sculptor realized
Hermes, perhaps; and the final cause is its function, to be a work of fine art. In each
way, Aristotle says that something can be better understood when its causes can be said
in specific terms rather than in general terms. So it is more informative to know that a
sculptor made the statue than to know that an artist made it; and even more informative
to know that Polycleitus chiseled it rather than simply that a sculptor did so.
Because of his tie with Alexander the Great Aristotle wrote Politics as a guide to rulers
as to how to govern a country. In Politics Aristotle lays out his ideal form of
Government. It contains thought provoking discussions on the role of human nature in
politics, the relation of the individual to the state, the place of morality in politics,
the theory of political justice, the rule of law, the analysis and evaluation of
constitutions, the relevance of ideals to practical politics, the causes and cures of
political change and revolution, and the importance of a morally educated citizenry. He
stressed that the ideal citizen and ruler must possess certain virtues, such as wisdom,
temperance and courage. And the work as a whole echoes Aristotle's dominant theme of
moderation. Politics is an excellent historical source because of the close tie Aristotle
had to the everyday business of government in Athens. It reflects the idealized values of
the people and the influence of Aristotle's teacher Plato. 
The importance of wisdom and justice also directly parallel the classical Greek ideology.
Aristotle believed that nature formed politics and the need for city-states (government)
formed out of nature. Aristotle lays the foundations for his political theory in Politics
by arguing that the city-state and political rule are natural. The argument begins with a
historical account of the development of the city-state out of simpler communities.
First, individual human beings combined in pairs because they could not exist apart. The
male and female joined in order to reproduce, and the master and slave came together for
self-preservation. The master uses his intellect to rule, and the natural slave uses his
body to labor. Second, the household arose naturally from these primitive communities in
order to serve everyday needs. Third, when several households combined for other needs a
village emerged also according to nature. Finally, the complete community, formed from
several villages, is a city-state, which can attain the limit of self-sufficiency. It
comes to be for the sake of life, and exists for the sake of the good life. . Aristotle
backs up four claims about the city-state: First, the city-state exists by nature,
because it comes to be out of the more primitive natural associations and it serves as
their end, because only it attains self-sufficiency. Second, human beings are by nature
political animals, because nature, which does nothing in vain, has equipped them with
speech, which enables them to communicate moral concepts such as justice, which are
formative of the household and city-state. Third, the city-state is naturally prior to
the individuals, because individuals cannot perform their natural functions apart from
the city-state, since they are not self-sufficient. However, these three claims are
immediately followed by a fourth: the city-state is a creation of human intelligence.
Therefore, everyone naturally has the impulse for such a [political] community, but the
person who first established [it] is the cause of very great benefits. This great benefit
may be the laws of the city-state. Aristotle points out that the legal system alone saves
them from their own savagery. It's interesting to see that Aristotle's view of nature
transcends in his view of the human character and what the humans should be. 
In Aristotle's Ethics he points out the popular view of what happiness was (and maybe
still is). Honor, pleasure and wealth are the things he believed the Greek people wanted
to be happy. He stated that honor is a superficial aim because at any moment it can be
taken away from us. Pleasure is enjoyable but is more an animal quality than human, and
wealth is merely a means towards a greater good. Aristotle taught moderation; the pursuit
of the above three vices is okay, but doesn't make it an all encompassing goal. In
contrast to the three things he warned against spending your life on, there were about
four things that he felt should be heartily sought after. Aristotle felt that everyone
should possess these qualities, and they were crucial for a good ruler. Wisdom, courage,
temperance and justice were the four virtues that Aristotle held so high. He felt that
only through these four qualities could lead a person or a country to true happiness.
Aristotle's virtues parallel the thinking of other classical Greeks. One of the obvious
reasons for this is that the teacher-student bond tied many philosophers. The great
Socrates taught Plato, and of course Plato was Aristotle's teacher. Although, the
influence of the teacher is very strong, the students also have show that they can think
independently and their works have a distinctly different taste to them. Plato said the
just person is wise, temperate and courageous and the just state is ruled by wisdom.
Plato's just state-displayed courage over force and temperance over intemperance.
Socrates, another of the famous classical Greeks, died for his views of wisdom and
justice. Socrates used logic to tell himself and his colleagues that he must die for the
sake of avoiding hypocrisy. Socrates' whole life he preached that the state's laws must
be held supreme for justice to prevail. The state sentenced him to death, and to avoid
death would be to contradict the state's laws. In the process he would be contradicting
what he had lived for. Many people likened Socrates to a gadfly, always buzzing in the
state's face to make sure they were doing the just thing. Aristotle also knew the
importance of justice but he approached it slightly differently. Justice, Aristotle's
third moral virtue, consisted of two main aspects. The first was that the laws made
citizens just; the state had to strive to make the people act morally and good.
Aristotle's second aspect of justice was that people should be awarded justly, or in
proportion to what they have done or accomplished. The higher the merit the higher the
honor or the higher the crime the worse the punishment. In Politics Aristotle lays down
his ideal structure of the family. His structure greatly reflected the values of the
people in the pater-dominated tradition. The belief of the time was that the father was
basically the king of his house; Aristotle didn't vary much from this. The father had
supreme authority and had control over his wife. He does concede that there is
reciprocity between the two but he feels that there is a permanent basic inequality. The
wife should remain the ruled one and show her courage (a moral virtue) through her
obedience and her glory through silence. The father also rules over his children with
supreme authority. Only through his death is his authority removed. Aristotle also
included the slave as part of the family, but he differentiates from the practices of the
time as what he considers to be an acceptable slave. The status quo was the removal of
strong bodies from conquered nations for the purpose of manual labor. He felt that
slavery through conquest was unacceptable. Slavery he believed to be acceptable was those
that needed the slave/master relationship to survive. Those that were too unintelligent
to govern themselves needed this bond to get through life. In exchange for their daily
care, the natural slaves are to do light household duties such as cooking. It is
interesting to note that in his will Aristotle called for the emancipation of some of his
own acquired slaves. An example of the slave/master relationship that Aristotle discussed
can be seen in today's world. Sometimes an elderly or sick person requires constant care.
They need to have everything done for them and therefore can't govern themselves. Another
person is required to make the persons important decisions and is responsible for their
care. In this example the distinction can be seen between Aristotle's idea of a slave and
Greeks traditional view, which was similar to the United States' in the 1800's.Aristotle
was a brilliant person who taught moderation in government and in life. He stressed the
importance of moral virtues as the key to happiness and a successful government.
Aristotle thought that the need for government and authority developed on its own from
nature. He taught in the Lyceum, a school he founded in Athens, how a just person should
live and how a just state should rule. His messages of virtue and moderation transcend
time and still are a great influence on history.
Bibliography
BIBLIOGRAPHY
McKeon, Richard. Introduction To Aristotle. New York: (Random House Inc, 1992)
Jones, W. T. The Classical Mind. New York: (Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers,
1980)